Do "super", "hyper", "ultra", "meta" actually mean anything different beyond just being "cool prefixes" that cycle in and out of favor either organically or suddenly when a major entrepreneur just comes along and names their entire ecosystem after one of them?

Proposed decision procedure for whether or not the prefixes actually have indepdendent meanings:

Identify some major products or concepts that use these prefixes. Swap the prefix out for any of the other ones in the list. Does the new name still "make sense"?

If (and only if) yes, they mean the same thing.

Left wondering why I've been shopping at the supermarket my whole life after learning about the hypermarket

Haha good one. You need to move to France a huge supermarket chain is actually named Hypermarket! :D