Do "super", "hyper", "ultra", "meta" actually mean anything different beyond just being "cool prefixes" that cycle in and out of favor either organically or suddenly when a major entrepreneur just comes along and names their entire ecosystem after one of them?

"Super" sits just above "Hyper" in the word hierarchy of above and beyond.
"Ultra" gets its modern meaning from the French and implies extremism.
"Meta" implies a state of change and as you pointed out is the sheep's clothing Facebook adorned itself with!